31. Biochemistry and molecular biology of cancer; Oncogenes; Chemical carcinogenesis; Genetic and metabolic disorders; Hormonal imbalances; Drug metabolism and detoxification; Genetic load and genetic counseling.
32. Lysogeny and lytic cycle in bacteriophages; Bacterial transformation; Host cell restriction; Transduction; Complementation; Molecular recombination; DNA ligases; Topoisomerases; Gyrases; Methylases; Nucleases; Restriction endonucleases; Plasmids and bacteriophage base vectors for cDNA and genomic libraries.
33. Principles and methods of genetic engineering and Gene targeting; Applications in agriculture, health and industry.
34. Cell and tissue culture in plants and animals; Primary culture; Cell line; Cell clones; Callus cultures; Somaclonal variation; Micropropagation; Somatic embryogenesis; Haploidy; Protoplast fusion and somatic hybridization; Cybrides; Genetransfer methods in plants and in animals; Transgenic biology; Allopheny; Artificial seeds; Hybridoma technology.
35. Structure and organisation of membranes; Glycoconjugates and proteins in membrane systems; Ion transport, Na+/K+ATPase; Molecular basis of signal transduction in bacteria, plants and animals; Model membranes; Liposomes.
36. Principles and application of light phase contrast, fluorescence, scanning and transmission electron microscopy, Cytophotometry and flow cytometry, fixation and staining.
37. Principles and applications of gel-filtration, ion-exchange and affinity chromatography; Thin layer and gas chromatography; High pressure liquid (HPLC) chromatography; Electrophoresis and electrofocussing; Ultracentrifugation (velocity and buoyant density).
38. Principles and techniques of nucleic acid hybridization and Cot curves; Sequencing of Proteins and nucleic acids; Southern, Northern and South-Western blotting techniques; Polymerase chain reaction; Methods for measuring nucleic acid and protein interactions.
39. Principles of biophysical methods used for analysis of biopolymer structure, X-ray diffraction, fluorescence, UV, ORD/CD, Visible, NMR and ESR spectroscopy; Hydrodynamic methods; Atomic absorption and plasma emission spectorocopy.
40. Principles and applications of tracer techniques in biology; Radiation dosimetry; Radioactive isotopes and half life of isotopes; Effect of radiation on biological system; Autoradiography; Cerenkov radiation; Liquid scintillation spectrometry.
41. Principles and practice of statistical methods in biological research, samples and populations; Basic statistics-average, statistics of dispersion, coefficient of variation; Standard error; Confidence limits; Probability distributions (biomial, Poisson and normal; Tests of statistical significance; Simple correlation of regression; Analysis of variance.
